volcanic ash

I was reminded of the charred scrolls from Herculaneum, on which the Getty Villa was modeled, and the ashy human figures from Pompeii, frozen in the poses in which they died as waves of volcanic ash and lava overtook them.

Rolls-Royce was at the forefront of pioneering testing and for the first time was able to establish a level of volcanic ash that didn't seriously affect the jet engine over a given timeframe.

Today there are three levels of volcanic ash contamination - low, medium and high, with guidance on how long a pilot can fly in those concentrations before causing significant damage.

There has also been a massive development programme in the monitoring and forecasting of volcanic ash.

In addition there have been advances in computer modelling to improve the physics and processes involved in how different shapes and sizes of volcanic ash behave in the atmosphere.